Social Media Means
Social Media Means
Photo: Vlada Karpovich
Popular examples of social network sites include Facebook, Twitter, Google +, Tumblr, and LinkedIn, each of which provide similar functionality in terms of sharing content and connecting with other users but differ in their underlying objectives.
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Read More »Social network sites have been defined as sites that enable users to create public profiles in a bounded system, to create connections with other users, and to navigate and view both their own as well as other users’ connections (Boyd and Ellison, 2007). While a site such as Twitter may be thought of as primarily a microblogging service, it can also be seen to adhere to each of these criteria and so may be thought of as a social network site. Since SixDegrees.com, the first recognizable social network site launched in 1997, many different social network sites have come and gone (ibid.). It has been suggested that social network sites can be categorized according to three main types: those for networking, those for socializing and those for navigation (Thelwall and Stuart, 2009). While a site such as LinkedIn may be seen as primarily for networking in a professional capacity with people who a user may or may not already know, a site such as Facebook is primarily used for socializing with people a user already knows. Navigation refers to those sites that, while having social network site characteristics, are primarily focused on providing access to content. For example, the photo-hosting site Flickr and the video-hosting site YouTube both have social networking capabilities, although they are primarily for accessing content, with the social network functionality providing a filtering facility. Whereas blogging can be seen primarily as an individual practice, social network sites enable users to engage more easily with one another and one another’s content, although both may encourage a fantasy of participation (Dean, 2008). Although users may believe their opinions are being listened to and are having an impact, in most cases they are either not being read or are being ignored. Whereas it was once publishing that was considered a claim to authority, now it is attention that is increasingly important. The increased use of certain social network sites in favour of the traditional blog has led to claims that blogging is dead or waning; rather than some inherent fault with blogging, however, it is a reflection of the emergence of more specialized tools, which may be more appropriate for particular situations.1 In September 2011 Nielsen reported that social network sites and blogs accounted for 23 per cent of the time Americans spent online (Nielsen, 2011). Since 2007, social network sites have attempted to offer increased functionality by providing application platforms on which external developers can build applications; these both provide a marketplace for application designers and provide users with access to functionality that social network sites would not have the time or money to develop themselves. The most popular of these applications have been downloaded tens of millions of times, and although most downloaded applications are often games (e.g. Cityville, a city-building simulation game), there are also more obviously useful applications, such as those providing additional communication functionality (e.g. Windows Live Messenger) or enabling the editing of office documents (e.g. Microsoft’s Docs). The increasing power that a small number of social network sites have over the way people interact online should, however, be cause for concern. Facebook, the largest social network site and currently reporting over 800 million active users, now has a significant amount of power over an increasingly important communication platform, with the potential to dictate the sort of content that people share (Facebook, 2011). Rather than the limits of freedom of speech being established by the courts and the rule of law, it is increasingly at the whim of a social network site or the tyranny of the masses. While the size of Facebook and the advantage resulting from the network effect make it seem unlikely that it will lose its market dominance in the near future, the rapid fall of MySpace is a reminder that no website is invulnerable. Once the most popular social network site, MySpace was bought by News International in 2005 for $580 million, but was sold in 2011 for a mere $35 million. It may be that Facebook is not overtaken by a single competitor, but rather by a set of open standards, as there is increasing interest in distributed approaches to social network sites that will prevent any one site achieving such market dominance in the future, and allow individuals and organizations to take control of their own data (Stuart, 2011a). The other type of social media site that has grown in popularity over the first decade of the twenty-first century, and that in one specific case has become infamous, is the wiki. Wikis enable the collaborative creation and editing of web pages through a web browser using either a simple markup language or text editor. The most famous of these, Wikipedia, provides both an example of what is possible through a wiki and its limitations. Many times the size of its rival encyclopaedias, and far more popular, its reliance on anyone contributing to the areas in which they are interested, and allowing anyone to contribute, has led to criticisms. It relies on a variation of Linus’s Law: ‘Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow’, which was first applied to the development of open source software (and named after Linus Torvald, who started the development of the open source operating system, Linux) (Raymond, 1999). The expectation is that, given enough users, factual errors will be quickly spotted; this is not always the case, however, as a large number of users on a site does not mean a large number of users visiting every page equally. Most famously, the journalist John Seigenthaler’s Wikipedia biography was changed to falsely suggest that he had been linked with the assassinations of John and Robert Kennedy, and the information remained unchallenged for a number of months, with the resulting controversy leading to new guidelines for the biographies of living persons. Although a study by the journalNature shortly after the controversy erupted showed not dissimilar levels of accuracy in a comparison between Wikipedia and the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the science pages that were analysed are not necessarily the most contentious or the most likely to be vandalized (Giles, 2005). While Wikipedia is the most well-known wiki, used by 53 per cent of American adult Internet users (Zickhur and Rainie, 2011), there are important differences in people’s understanding of how the site works, the credibility they assign to the information they read and their willingness to follow up sources (Flanagin and Metzger, 2011; Menchen-Trevino and Hargittai, 2011). Used properly, however, wikis can provide an ideal platform for group collaboration, allowing the quick and simple creation and editing of web pages, and allowing versioning for edits to be rolled back. All of these Web 2.0 applications may be thought of as taking place in ‘the cloud’, a metaphor for the Internet, with ‘cloud computing’ generally used to refer to ‘storing, accessing, and sharing data, applications, and computer power in cyberspace’ (Anderson and Rainie, 2010). The cloud may be seen as the natural conclusion of the provision of services through the web, moving from the provision of software services to the provision of computing power itself. While cloud computing incorporates social software, it also takes the current generation of Web 2.0 services to the next level. Web 2.0 services as we generally think of them typically provide one particular service through a web browser, with users needing to go to different sites for different services; although Facebook now provides a platform in addition to its core social network service, it is far more limited than the services that could be available through the network as a platform. While cloud computing includes software as a service and data as a service, it can also include hardware as a service, and so could enable the virtualization of hardware (Wang et al., 2010). The era of the PC is synonymous with running applications on the desktop, as opposed to multiple users time-sharing first on mainframes and then on smaller mini-computers. While PCs originally offered convenience in comparison to the timesharing of limited computing resources, such an approach may be seen as extremely wasteful as IT infrastructure becomes increasingly complex. Organizations are spending an increasing amount of time and money on the IT infrastructure of an organization: between the end of the 1960s and the year 2000, information technology went from less than 10 per cent of an American company’s capital equipment budget to 45 per cent (Carr, 2009). With the regular installing, configuring and updating of software, and with computer resources quickly becoming outdated, the outsourcing of computer platforms can be seen as the smart solution; especially as much of the current computing infrastructure sits idle most of the time (Wang et al., 2010). Using the network rather than the desktop as a platform means that organizations and individuals with the necessary skills can tap into the computing power they need as and when they need it, rather than constantly having to update systems and software to deal with peak demand; this would potentially allow new innovative Internet services without large capital outlays (Armbrust et al., 2009).
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Read More »Widespread usage of the cloud for both storage and processing power can be seen as a natural destination for the web of today, and in a ‘Future of the Internet’ survey carried out as part of the Pew Internet & American Life Project, 71 per cent of technology experts participating in the survey agreed with the statement that: ‘By 2020, most people won’t do their work with software running on a general-purpose PC. Instead, they will work in Internet-based applications such as Google Docs, and in applications run from smartphones’ (Anderson and Rainie, 2010). There are still a number of challenges ahead before cloud computing becomes more widely adopted, especially in the area of privacy and confidentiality, where there have been several high profile failures (Ryan, 2011); in September 2011, for example, Dropbox, a file hosting service, briefly allowed unauthorized access to accounts (Dropbox, 2011). Nonetheless, such concerns are likely to be quickly overcome when users find that there are significant advantages to the online services that are offered. Not everything is moving to the cloud, however, and it is noticeable that Pew’s survey grouped Internet-based applications together with applications run from smartphones. Although there has been a change in the way increasing numbers of people access software through their desktops, the rise of the app store has created a renaissance of the downloaded application through the widespread use of mobile phones and tablets. No prediction of the number of future downloads currently seems too high, with one report claiming mobile app downloads will reach 98 billion by 2015 (Perez, 2011). Like computers, smartphones and mobile phones that run a high-level operating system (such as the Apple iPhone or the Android), are capable of running multiple programs at the same time, and are an increasingly significant part of the mobile phone market (Nielsen, 2009). They are merging people’s home and work lives, they are always turned on and smartphone users reportedly spend less time doing other activities after getting a smartphone (Ofcom, 2011). Between O’Reilly’s original paper in 2005, and his revisiting of the subject in 2009, the focus had moved from the web as a platform to the network as a platform, and the always-turned-on smartphone with an increasing number of sensors is an ideal way to connect to the network. Although mobile applications show us that it is possible to do this without putting the products on the web, in the same way that there is a risk in the dominance of a single social network site such as Facebook, there is the inevitable risk of vendors taking too much control of the phone as a platform; Apple, for example, has a censorship policy for apps and does not allow certain types of content in the app store (Dredge, 2011). Time will tell whether downloaded applications will be a short-term option until improvements in mobile telecommunications and greater functionality enabled by HTML5 will push many of these applications to the cloud, or whether the simplicity it provides as a way of getting money for applications will see developers continue to focus on the downloaded application.
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